Leonidas

Great Ruler of Sparta

Leonidas is a well-known figure as king of Sparta, especially for his brave resistance at the Battle of Thermopylae. His life, while shaped by the disciplined and military traditions of Sparta, became a symbol of heroism, sacrifice and national honor in Greek history and culture. Leonidas's life and leadership have been widely covered in both historical and mythological narratives, serving as a profound example of heroism and patriotism.

He is summarized by his eternal reply to Persia: ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ (Come and take them)

KING OF SPARTA

The future king was born to Anaxandridas II, king of the Eurypontid dynasty of Sparta, and his second wife. The kings of Sparta usually came from two dynasties: Agiad and Eurypontid families. Leonidas belonged to the Agiad dynasty. Even the meaning of Leonidas' name is associated with heroism; Leonidas means “son of the lion” in Greek, symbolizing his brave and strong nature. Just as all the Spartan aristocracy, Leonidas traced his lineage from his legendary ancestor, Herakles.

He had three brothers, Agisilaos, Kleomenes I and Dorieus. In Sparta, the dual throne usually passed to the eldest son, so Leonidas was not initially a direct heir to the throne. Leonidas' eldest brother Kleomenes I became king after the death of their father Anaxandridas II. However, political disputes and ambitious military campaigns against both Athens and the Persian king Darius (in aid of the Scythians) during Kleomenes' reign would increase the likelihood that Leonidas would one day become king.

In Sparta, every man, especially those belonging to the royal family and the aristocracy, underwent rigorous military training. This training system is known as “Agoge” and was at the heart of Spartan society. Agoge was a brutal and harsh training process that focuses on physical endurance, strategy, martial art and discipline. Leonidas, like all Spartan boys, endured great hardship during this process. There were no exceptions for the aristocracy and in fact the highest level of society endured even more strict training according to Spartan mores.

Leonidas was known as exceptionally valiant and brave even at this point in his youth. The intense training aimed to increase the physical endurance of individuals, build resistance to pain and hunger, and instill the idea of service to society. His training shaped his qualities of leadership and courage and set the stage for his later heroism at Thermopylae.

In Sparta, the highest duty of a male warrior was to serve his community and go to war. It was a society where military strength and discipline based on lacking the fear of death were the most important values. For a Spartan soldier even to be next to a trembling companion was an extreme disgrace. A Spartan leader was considered the defender and protector of his people, therefore Leonidas was raised with this sense of grave responsibility.

At the time Leonidas became king, the Greek city-states were facing the expansion of the Persian Empire and threats to Greek territory. Due to the Athenians allying with the breakaway city-states of the Ionian coastline rebelling against Persia in the Ionian revolt, the Persian King Darius I had attempted to invade and crush all of Greece with a gigantic force, suffering a heavy defeat against the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon. However, this defeat did not stop any Persian plans to subjugate Greece.

Leonidas became king only after the death of Kleomenes. During his reign, Kleomenes I fought many battles with the Persians and other Greek city-states, and even had serious conflicts with Athens and Argos, the latter being a state that aligned with the increasing Persian ambitions. Leonidas inherited his brother Kleomenes’ belief that Persia in the process of rapidly expanding across the Aegean was not invincible regardless of the forty-six or so nations under her hegemony.

All the siblings were ambitious. Another brother of Leonidas, Dorieus, died while trying to establish a colony in Africa. However, Kleomenes failed to pass on the throne to his own children; some sources state that he lost his sanity before his death. Leonidas therefore became the strongest candidate for the throne and became one of the two kings of Sparta at sixty years of age, an unusually advanced time of life.

In contrast to Pericles of Athens, Leonidas was no modest man in his capacity of leadership and freely exhibited the extreme aristocratic attitude of the Spartans with little deference to his compatriots, which is related in an anecdote Plutarch passes down to us:

Λεωνίδας ὁ Ἀναξανδρίδα, ἀδελφὸς δὲ Κλεομένους, πρός τινα εἰπόντα, “πλὴν τοῦ βασιλεύειν ἡμῶν οὐδὲν διαφέρεις,” “ἀλλ᾿ οὐκ ἄν,” ἔφη, “εἰ μὴ βελτίων ὑμῶν ἤμην, ἐβασίλευον.”

Leonidas of Anaxandridas and the brother of Kleomenes, in answer to a man who remarked, “Except for your being king, you are no different from the rest of us,” said, “Yet if I were no better than the rest of you, I should not be king.”¹

Seeing the Greek exhibition as a stain on his father’s legacy and encouraged by scurrilous elements in his court, along with the exiled traitor to Sparta named Demaratus, Darius' son Xerxes was stoked with ambition: he began to prepare a large army to avenge his father and conquer Greece. He also had ambitions for the greater conquest of Europe and Scythia, a project that would create a centerpiece for the magnificent expansion of Persepolis. Xerxes was also aggrieved at the apparent connection of Spartan interests to a revolt in Babylon early in his reign. It was the Spartan response to this conflict that marked Leonidas' leadership.

THE PYTHIAN ORACLE

In time, Xerxes mobilized a large land and naval force to invade the mainland. Xerxes even built a gigantic structure, a crossing of conjoined boats across the Hellespont from Anatolia into Thrace, to allow for the easy crossing of his gargantuan army. This idea was completely doubted by historians; recent archaeological evidence came to prove it. However, on the first attempt, a tempestuous storm destroyed the crossing. His second attempt proved fruitful. At the same time, Xerxes encouraged an invasion of Sicily by Carthage, making the powerful Greek city states of southern Italy unable to give assistance.

In response, there were disagreements among the Greek city-states about resistance to the Persians. The Pythia of Delphi gave a terrifying and broadly discouraging response:

Ὦ μέλεοι, τί κάθησθε; λιπὼν φεῦγ᾿ ἔσχατα γαιης
δώματα καὶ πόλιος τροχοειδέος ἄκρα κάρηνα.
οὔτε γὰρ ἡ κεφαλὴ μενεῖ ἔμπεδον, οὔτε τὸ σῶμα,
οὔτε πόδες νέατοι, οὔτ᾿ ὦν χέρες, οὔτε τι μέσσης
λείπεται, ἀλλ᾿ ἄζηλα πέλει· κατὰ γάρ μιν ἐρείπει
πῦρ τε καὶ ὀξὺς Ἄρης, Συριηγενὲς ἅρμα διώκων·
πολλὰ δὲ κἄλλ᾿ ἀπολεῖ πυργώματα, κοὐ τὸ σὸν οἶον·
πολλοὺς δ᾿ ἀθανάτων ναοὺς μαλερῷ πυρὶ δώσει,
οἵ που νῦν ἱδρῶτι ῥεούμενοι ἑστήκασι,
δείματι παλλόμενοι· κατὰ δ᾿ ἀκροτάτοις ὀρόφοισιν
αἷμα μέλαν κέχυται, προϊδὸν κακότητος ἀνάγκην.
ἀλλ᾿ ἴτον ἐξ ἀδύτοιο, κακοῖς δ᾿ἐπικίδνατε θυμόν.

O wretched ones, why sit there? Leave—flee from the far edges of the earth, from your homes and the towering heights of the wheel-walled city. For neither shall the head remain steadfast, nor the body, nor the low-lying feet, nor indeed the hands, nor anything in between; all shall be undone beyond envy. For fire and piercing Ares cast it down, driving his Syrian-born chariot.

And he shall destroy many other ramparts, not just yours alone; many temples of the immortals he shall too hand over to furious fire, those which even now, I suppose, stand streaming with sweat, trembling with dread; and upon their utmost roofs black blood is poured, foreseeing the compulsion of evil. But go forth from the inner shrine, and steel your souls for these woes.

When the Spartans asked her for an oracle, she responded by saying:

Ὑμῖν δ᾿, ὦ Σπάρτης οἰκήτορες εὐρυχόροιο,
ἢ μέγα ἄστυ ἐρικυδὲς ὑπ᾿ ἀνδράσι Περσείδῃσι
πέρθεται· ἢ τὸ μὲν οὐχί, ἀφ᾿ Ἡρακλέους δὲ γενέθλης
πενθήσει βασιλῆ φθίμενον Λακεδαίμονος οὖρος.
οὐ γὰρ τὸν ταύρων σχήσει μένος οὐδὲ λεόντων
ἀντιβίην· Ζηνὸς γὰρ ἔχει μένος· οὐδέ ἑ φημὶ
σχήσεσθαι, πρὶν τῶνδ᾿ ἕτερον διὰ πάντα δάσηται.

O you, inhabitants of broad-wayed Sparta: either your great, renowned city is sacked by the men of Perseus, or else—if this does not befall you—Laconia’s land shall mourn the death of a king descended from Heracles. For neither the might of bulls nor of lions can arrest the king of kings, since he wields the power of Zeus; nor, I say, will he be stopped until he chooses one of these two fates as final.

BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE

While some cities chose to surrender rather than fight against the Persian power and realms such as Macedon chose to align with the Persians, the most prominent cities like Athens and Sparta decided to resist. A defensive alliance was formed between the Greek city-states and Leonidas emerged as one of its military leaders.

The Battle of Thermopylae, a turning point in Leonidas' life and Greek history, took place at a strategic pass in Thessaly inbetween a mountain range and the sea. Thermopylae was chosen as it is a narrow pass; it was a strategic point to prevent the Persians from landing their land forces on Greek soil. However, this would still be an immense gamble particularly as the Persian army was well-equipped, even having hundreds of thousands of extra-combatants on the wings simply to supply the army.

Leonidas participated in this battle with three hundred elite Spartan warriors. Part of the reason why three hundred Spartans were chosen for this deadly battle was due to the ongoing celebration of the Karneia of Apollo [Azazel], a religious festival that was a core element of Spartan life and a celebration which the Persian spies across Greece had relayed to Xerxes would put the most terrifying army of the Hellenes at a severe disadvantage. However, knowing this conceit of the King of Kings well in asvance, Leonidas also chose this number to demonstrate Spartan valor.

Λεγόντων δὲ τῶν ἐφόρων ὀλίγους ἄγειν αὐτὸν εἰς Θερμοπύλας, “οὐκ ἀλλὰ πλέονας,” ἔφη, “πρὸς ἣν βαδίζομεν πρᾶξιν.”

When the Ephors said that he was taking but few men to Thermopylae, he said, “Too many for the enterprise on which we are going.”¹

Even in comparison to other Greeks, Leonidas took religious elements very seriously and therefore bringing this number partially to ensure a full commitment to the Gods was an incredible gamble. To help, they were accompanied by a force of around seven thousand men from various Greek city-states. What would result as the most famous aspect of this legendary battle stands as the relentless resistance of this small force against the massive Persian army.

Xerxes expected a swift and crushing victory at Thermopylae. He demanded the surrender of Leonidas, offering benefits to Sparta if it chose to become a pro-Persian hegemon in Greece that would exist to enforce the interests of the Empire. Leonidas, true to Spartan discipline and honor, refused to surrender.

Ξέρξου δὲ γράψαντος αὐτῷ, “ἔξεστί σοι μὴ θεομαχοῦντι, μετ᾿ ἐμοῦ δὲ ταττομένῳ, τῆς Ἑλλάδος μοναρχεῖν,” ἀντέγραψεν, “εἰ τὰ καλὰ τοῦ βίου ἐγίγωσκες, ἀπέστης ἂν τῆς τῶν ἀλλοτρίων ἐπιθυμίας· ἐμοὶ δὲ κρείττων ὁ ὑπὲρ τῆς Ἑλλάδος θάνατος τοῦ μοναρχεῖν τῶν ὁμοφύλων.”

Xerxes wrote to him, “It is possible for you, by not fighting against God but by ranging yourself on my side, to be the sole ruler of Greece.” But he wrote in reply, “If you had any knowledge of the noble things of life, you would refrain from coveting others’ possessions; but for me to die for Greece is better than to be the sole ruler over the people of my race.” ¹

During the first few days of the battle, due to the technology of the long phalanx spears against the underequipped Persian infantry of the Kissian and Mede nations but also the bravery of the Spartan warriors, Leonidas and his army managed to hold the Persian cavalry in the narrow pass. Despite their numerical superiority, the Persians were unable to maneuver in the narrow pass and suffered heavy casualties in the confined space adapted ideally for the Greek phalanx style of combat, enraging Xerxes.

Xerxes chose to use a secondary tactic of showering the Spartans with arrows from afar. The Persians were immensely skilled archers and also had immense amounts of cavalry archers who could typically wipe out infantry with ease. Due to the shields and the Spartan method of running in the opposite direction to exhaust, enrage and expose the Persian archers, this was only minimally effective. Finally, he chose to bring the terrifying armored elite cavalry of the Persians, the Immortals, out onto the field. However, the mountainous terrain and the movement of the Greek army was not adapted to help the Immortals achieve much victory against the Spartans and their allies who continued to be mobile. The first day of the Battle resulted in the Greek forces maintaining control.

The second day continued as before but the Greeks began to flag in confronting the endless waves of Persian forces. With the wearing down of the defenders, the tide of the battle began to turn in favor of the Persians, but not as swiftly as Xerxes had hoped. He therefore had to come up with a solution.

Xerxes was a crafty individual and well-learned in the arts of subterfuge from his father Darius, a highly ambitious man who had seized the throne of Iran through cunning means. He soon was able to find a Greek traitor named Ephialtes expecting a grand reward for being an informant, who showed the Persians a secret mountain road named the Anopaia that led around the pass of Thermopylae. This gave the Persians the opportunity to flank the Greek army from behind. The Phocians guarding this area were picked off by the Persians.

Due to the Phocian retreat, news soon reached Leonidas of the Persian encirclement from the other side. Although Leonidas could have retreated when news of this siege reached him, he decided to allow the other Greek forces to leave, for he and his three hundred plus several hundreds of Thespians and Thebans wished to stay to continue the battle and resist to the end.

Herodotus relates that Leonidas stayed due to remembering the Oracle of Delphi’s proclamation that either one of the kings of Sparta would fall or all of Sparta itself would be laid to waste. Being a pious devotee of Apollo, Leonidas chose to remain and embrace a noble death rather than sacrifice his great homeland, knowing he would be hailed by the Gods.

Resolute and brave, there was a final matter to accomplish on the battlefield. Leonidas’ final charge against the Persians is said to have resulted in more casualties than all of the Persian casualties of the previous two days. Two half-brothers of Xerxes also died in this charge among the Golden Ones of the Immortals, a great source of anxiety and a bad omen for the King of Kings.

This decision made Leonidas a symbol of heroism, benevolence and sacrifice, as well as an eternal emblem of patriotic devotion. The Persians showered Leonidas and the Spartans with arrows and finally defeated them. But the resistance of Leonidas and his men bought time for the Greek city-states and became a great source of morale in the Greek world.

εὐθὺς οὖν οἱ μὲν ἄλλοι πάντες ἀπηλλάγησαν, ὁ δὲ Λεωνίδης μετὰ τῶν πολιτῶν ἡρωικὰς πράξεις καὶ παραδόξους ἐπετελέσατο, ὀλίγων δ᾿ ὄντων Λακεδαιμονίων (Θεσπιεῖς γὰρ μόνους παρακατέσχε), καὶ τοὺς σύμπαντας ἔχων οὐ πλείους τῶν πεντακοσίων, ἕτοιμος ἦν ὑποδέξασθαι τὸν ὑπὲρ τῆς Ἑλλάδος θάνατον.

Immediately, then, all the rest departed, but Leonidas together with his fellow citizens performed heroic and astounding deeds; and although the Lacedaemonians were but few (he detained only the Thespiaeans) and he had all told not more than five hundred men, he was ready to meet death on behalf of Hellas.²

GREAT HERO

Leonidas' heroic death at Thermopylae became one of the greatest symbols of courage, sacrifice and patriotism in Greek history and the Western world. His leadership and resistance inspired later Greek victories over the Persians. His sacrifice in battle encouraged other Greek city-states to fight in unity. True to what the Pythia said, Athens was laid to waste and the Temple of Athena was burned ruthlessly by the invaders. However, in the following months, the Greeks won major victories against the Persians, such as the sea Battle of Salamis and the Battle of Plataea.

Leonidas' body, although destroyed by the Persians, was later honored by the Spartans and a monument was erected on the site of the Battle of Thermopylae. Today, there is a statue erected at Thermopylae in memory of Leonidas and the three hundred Spartans. On the statue are the following words, symbolizing the courage of the Spartans who participated in the battle: “Molon Labe” (Come and take it), Leonidas' famous words expressing his refusal to surrender to the Persians.

In ancient Greece, Leonidas' heroism was particularly deeply engraved in the history of Sparta. Since Sparta was a society based on discipline, war and honor, Leonidas' resistance at Thermopylae was an eternal source of pride for the people of this austere and warlike state.

Therefore, Pausanias (a contemporary of Marcus Aurelius) relates that Leonidas had ascended to the level of a Hero given a sanctuary and cult of worship by his time period, along with two exceptionally valiant soldiers of Thermopylae named Maron and Alpheus. We know that Spartan statues of Leonidas are given religious regalia, such as the ram-horns of Ammon.

Historians such as Herodotus wrote in detail about Leonidas' leadership and the Battle of Thermopylae, being an example to the rest of the Classical world to follow.

During the Roman Empire, Leonidas' story was also held in high esteem by the Romans. The Roman sense of military virtues and patriotism greatly admired the courage of the Spartans. Roman writers such as Plutarch wrote works immortalizing Leonidas' life and war. Many military leaders in Rome tried to emulate Leonidas' heroism and stand out as disciplined and courageous

τῶν ἐν Θερμοπύλαις θανόντων εὐκλεὴς μὲν ἁ τύχα, καλὸς δ᾿ ὁ πότμος,
βωμὸς δ᾿ ὁ τάφος, πρὸ γόων
δὲ μνᾶστις, ὁ δ’οἶτος ἔπαινος.
ἐντάφιον δὲ τοιοῦτον οὔτ᾿ εὐρὼς
οὔθ᾿ ὁ πανδαμάτωρ ἀμαυρώσει χρόνος.
ἀνδρῶν δ᾿ ἀγαθῶν ὅδε
σηκὸς οἰκέταν εὐδοξίαν
Ἑλλάδος εἵλετο· μαρτυρεῖ δὲ καὶ Λεωνίδας
ὁ Σπάρτας βασιλεύς, ἀρετᾶς μέγαν λελοιπὼς
κόσμον ἀέναόν τε κλέος.

Of those who perished at Thermopylae, glorious indeed was their fortune, noble their end;
their tomb is an altar, their remembrance precedes all mourning,
and their destiny is praise.
Such a sepulchre neither decay nor the all-subjugator time—shall dim.
This tomb of noble men has claimed as its tenant
the bright renown of Greece;
and Leonidas, the Spartan king, is witness:
he has left behind a great ornament of valor,
an eternal glory too.³